User blog:SpyroBiel/Psychology Vocab
Just the vocabulary terms that I've been spamming. *'Psychology'-The scientific study of behavior and mental processes. *'Behavior'-Observable and measurable responses or actions of people and animals. *'Cognitive activities'-Private, unobservable mental processes such as thought and problem solving. *'Psychological constructs'-Theoretical terms or concepts that enable one to discuss something that cannot be seen, touched, or measured directly. *'Theory'-An plausible explanation for observed phenomena or facts and their relation to each other. *'Principle'-A basic generalization that is accepted as truth and often used for reasoning. *'Introspection'-An examination of one's own thoughts and feelings. *'Associationism'-A learned connection between two ideas or events. *'Structuralism'-The school of psychology that maintains that conscious experience breaks down into objective sensations and subjective feelings. *'Functionalism'-The school of psychology that emphasizes the purposes of behavior and mental processes. *'Behaviorism-'''The school of psychology, founded by John Watson, that defines psychology as the scientific study of observable behavior. *'Gestsalt psychology'''-The school of psychology that emphasizes the tendency to organize perceptions into meaningful wholes. *'Psychoanalysis'-The school of psychology, founded by Sigmund Freud, that emphasizes the importance of unconscious motives and conflicts as determinants of human behavior. *'Biological perspective'-The psychological perspective that emphasizes the influence of biology on behavior. *'Evolutionary perspective'-The theory that focuses on the evolution of behavior and mental processes. *Cognitive perspective-The viewpoint that emphasizes the role of thought processes in determining behavior. *'Humanistic perspective'-The psychological view that emphasizes the importance of self-awareness and the freedom to make choices. *'Psychoanalytic perspective'-The psychological perspective that stresses the influences of unconscious forces on human behavior. *'Learning perspective'-The psychological point of view that emphasizes the effects of external influences on behavior. *'Social learning theory'-The theory claiming that people learn new behavior through observation and conditioning processes. *'Sociocultural perspective'-Psychological perspective that emphasizes the influences of culture on mental processes and behavior. *'Ethnic group'-A group united by cultural heritage, race, language, or common history. *'Psychologist'-A professional that specializes in studying mental processes and behavior as well as engages in treating mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders. * Clinical psychologist -A professional that specializes in helping people with psychological problems, such as anxiety or depression, or severe psychological disorders, such as schizophrenia. * Counseling psychologist -A professional that often treats people who have adjustment problems rather than serious psychological disorders. * School psychologist -A professional that works with students having mental, emotional, or behavioral difficulties in school. * Educational psychologist -A professional that generally focuses on improving instructional methods in an educational system. * Developmental psychologist -A professional that studies changes that occur throughout a person's life span. * Social pssychologist -A professional that focuses on interpersonal relationships and behavior influenced by social situations. * Experimental psychologis t -A professional that foc uses on studying traditional psychological topics such as motivation and conditioning through experimental research methods. * Hypothesi s-A predic tion or assumption about behavior that is tested through scientific research. *'Replicate'-To repeat a research study, usually with different participants and in different situations, to confirm the results of the original study. *'Construct'-A concept that cannot be seen or measured directly. *'Steps of scientific research'-The general procedure followed when conducting experimental investigation. *'Survey'-A research technique used to acquire data about the attitudes or behaviors of a group of people. *'Target population'-The group of individuals represented by a sample used in a research study. *'Sample'-A representative segment of a target population. *'Random sample'-A group of participants, selected by chance, which fairly represents the general population. *'Stratified sample'-A group of participants chosen in such a way that known subgroups within a population are represented in proportion to their numbers in the general population. *'Bias'-Predisposition to possess a specific point of view. *'Volunteer bias'-Bias that occurs when participants that volunteer for a research study possess different characteristics than non-volunteers. *'Case study'-An in-depth study of a single person or group used to gather understanding about thoughts or specific behavior. *'Longitudinal method'-A type of research in which the same people are studied over a long time period. *'Cross-sectional method'-A method of research that studies different groups of individuals who appear to differ in interest by share similar characteristics such as socioeconomic status or education level. *'Naturalistic observation'-The study of behavior in naturally occurring situations without manipulation or control on the part of the observer. *'Laboratory observation'-The study of behavior in a controlled situation. *'Correlation'-The relationship between variables. *'Positive correlation'-A relationship between variables in which one variable increases or decreases in the same manner that the other variable increases or decreases. *'Negative correlation'-A relationship between variables that occurs when as one variable increases, the other variable decreases. *'Experiment'-A controlled scientific procedure to determine whether certain variables manipulated by the researcher have an effect on other variables. *'Independent variable'-The factor that is manipulated by the researcher to determine its effect on another variable. *'Dependent variable'-In an experiment, the factor that is measured and may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable. *'Experimental group'-In a study, the participants who receive the treatment. *'Control group'-In an experiment, the group that does not receive the treatment. *'Controlled experiment'-An experiment that uses both a control group and an experimental group to determine the influence of the independent variable on the dependent variable. *'Placebo'-An inert substance used in controlled experiments to control for the effects of participant expectations. *'Single-blind study'-A study in which the participants are unaware of whether they are in the control group or the experimental group. *'Double-blind study'-An experiment in which neither the participant nor the researcher knows whether the participant has received the treatment or the placebo. *'Ethics'-Rules and standards for proper and responsible behavior. *'Informed consent'-An agreement by an individual to participate in research after receiving information about the purpose of the study and the nature of the treatment. *'Confidentiality'-Process that limits the access to identifiable information about a person. *'Deception'-Participants are unaware of the treatment they are receiving or the nature of the study. *'Hawthorne effect'-Theory that explains how individual responses or behavior may change when participating in research as a result of being observed by others. *'Statistics'-The branch of mathematics concerned with summarizing and making meaningful inferences from collections of data. * Descriptive statistics -Statistical process that summarizes and organizes data in a practical, efficient way such as through graphs and averages. * Frequency distribution -An arrangement of data that indicates how often a particular score or observation occurs. * Normal curve -A type of frequency distribution shaped like a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that represents a range of particular data scores. * Central tendency -A number that describes something about the "average" score of a distribution. * Variance -A measure of difference, or spread. * Standard deviation -A measure of variability that describes an average distance of every score from the mean of the scores. * Correlation coefficient -A statistic that describes the direction and strength of the relationship between two variables. * Inferential statistics -Numerical methods used to determine whether research data support a hypothesis or whether results were due to chance. * Neurons -A nerve cell that receives and transmits information. * Cell body -The part of a neuron that produces the energy needed for the activity of the cell. * 'Dendrite s'-The bra nchlike extensions of a neuron that receive impulses and conduct them toward the cell body. *'Axon'-A long tubelike structure attached to a neuron that transmits impulses away from the neuron cell body. *'Myelin'-A white, fatty substance that insulates axons and enables rapid transmission of neural impulses. *'Axon terminals'-Small fibers branching out from an axon. *'Synapse'-The junction between the axon terminals of the sending neuron and the dendrites of the receiving neuron. *'Neurotransmitters'-A chemical messenger that carries impulses across the synaptic gaps between neurons. *'Spinal cord'-A column of nerves within the spine that transmit messages to and from the brain. *'Medulla'-A structure at the base of the brain stem that controls vital functions such as heartbeat and breathing. *'Pons'-A brain structure located at the top of the brain stem that is involved in respiration, movement, and sleep. *'Cerebellum'-The area of the brain that is responsible for voluntary movement and balance. *'Reticular activating system'-The part of the brain that is involved in attention, sleep, and arousal. *'Thalamus'-The structure of the brain that relays messages from the sense organs to the cerebral cortex. *'Hypothalamus'-The neural structure located below the thalamus that controls temperature, hunger, thirst and various aspects of emotion. *'Cerebrum'-The large mass of the forebrain, consisting of two hemispheres. *'Cerebral cortex'-The bumpy, convoluted surface of the brain; the body's control and information-processing center. *'Corpus callosum'-The nerve fibers that connect the left and right hemispheres of the cerebral cortex. *'Association areas'-Areas of the cerebral cortex that are involved in such mental operations as thinking, memory, learning, and problem solving. *'Endocrine system'-Group of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. *'Hormones'-Chemicals produced by the endocrine glands that regulate specific body functions. *'Pituitary gland'-Endocrine gland stimulated by the hypothalamus that is responsible for the secretion of many different hormones throughout the body. *'Thyroid gland'-Endocrine gland that help regulate metabolism, heart rate, and blood pressure. *'Adrenal glands'-Endocrine glands located above the kidneys that assist in regulating heart rate and salt levels in the body. *'Testosterone'-A sex hormone found more in males that plays an important role in development. *'Estrogen'-Sex hormone found more in females that plays an important role in development. *'Progesterone'-Sex hormone that stimulates growth of the female reproductive organs and helps prepare the body for pregnancy. *'Heredity'-The genetic transmission of traits from one generation to the next. *'Chromosomes'-A microscopic threadlike structure in the nucleus that carry genetic information. *'Identical twins'-Individuals that are 100% genetically similar. *'Genes'-Biochemical messengers that are key in transmitting hereditary information. *'Fraternal twins'-Individuals that share an average of 50 percent of their genes. *'Sensation'-The stimulation of sensory receptors and the transmission of sensory information to the brain. *'Perception'-The organization and interpretation of sensory information into meaningful experiences. * Psychophysics -The study of the relationships between sensory experiences and the physical stimuli that cause them. * Absolute threshold -The weakest amount of stimulus that a person can detect half the time. * Difference threshold -The smallest change in a physical stimulus that can be detected between two stimuli. * Weber's law -A psychophysics law stating that the larger or stronger a stimulus, the larger the change required for an observer to notice a difference. * Signal -detection theory-Theory claiming that stimuli detection involves the intensity of a stimulus as well as a variety of factors that influence decision making processes. * Pupil -The opening in the center of the eye that adjusts to allow light to enter. * 'Len s'-Th e transparent structure of the eye that focuses light on the retina. *'Retina'-The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye that contains the rods, cones, and neurons that process visual stimuli. *'Photoreceptors'-Neurons that respond to light. *'Blind spot'-The part of the retina where optic nerve fibers exit the eye; optic disk *'Visual acuity'-Keenness or sharpness of vision. *'Afterimage'-The visual sensation that occurs after the original stimulus has been removed. *'Cochlea'-The fluid-filled structure of the inner ear that transmits sound impulses to the auditory nerve. *'Auditory nerve'-The cranial nerve that carries sound from the cochlea of the inner ear to the brain. *'Conductive deafness'-Hearing loss caused by damage to the middle ear, thus interfering with the transmission of sound waves to the cochlea. *'Sensorineural deafness'-Deafness that results from damage to the auditory nerve. *'Pitch'-Perception of sound that is dependent upon the frequency of a sound wave vibration. *'Olfactory nerve'-The nerve that transmits information about odors from olfactory receptors to the brain. *'Gate theory'-Theory claiming that specific patterns of neural activity within the spinal cord regulate incoming pain signals. *'Vestibular sense'-The sense that provides information about the position of the body. *'Kinesthesis'-The sense that provides information about the position and movement of individual body parts. *'Closure'-The tendency to perceive a complete or whole figure even when there are gaps in sensory information. *'Proximity'-The perceptual tendency to group together visual and auditory events that are near each other. *'Similarity'-The perceptual tendency to group together elements that seem alike. *'Continuity'-The perceptual tendency to group stimuli into continuous patterns. *'Common Fate'-The tendency to perceive objects that are moving together as belonging together. *'Stroboscopic motion'-A visual illusion in which the perception of motion is generated by the presentation of a series of stationary images in rapid succession. *'Monocular cues'-Cues for distance that may be available to either eye alone. *'Binocular cues'-Visual cues for depth that require the use of both eyes. *'Retinal disparity'-A binocular cue for perceiving depth based on the different locations of the two images on the right and left retina. *'Selective attention'-Deliberately focusing on a particular stimulus. *'Preconscious'-Maintains thoughts or information that is not conscious but is retrievable into conscious awareness. *'Unconscious'-A reservoir of personal thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories that an individual is unaware of. *'Nonconscious'-Consists of processes that occur automatically within the body, such as the growing of hair, which individuals remain unaware of. *'Altered states of consciousness'-A type of consciousness that differs from a normal waking consciousness. *'Circadian rhythms'-A regular sequence of biological processes, such as temperature and sleep, that occurs every 24 hours. *'Rapid-eye'-movement sleep-A stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements and low-voltage, high frequency brain waves. *'Insomnia'-A sleep disorder characterized by recurring problems in falling asleep or staying asleep. *'Night terrors'-A sleep disorder characterized by intense autonomic arousal and panic. *'Sleep apnea'-A sleep disorder in which breathing is interrupted. *Narcolepsy-An uncommon sleep disorder characterized by brief attacks of REM sleep, often at inopportune moments. *'Meditation'-A systematic narrowing of attention on an image, thought, bodily process, or external object with the goal of clearing one's mind and producing relaxation. *'Biofeedback'-A technique used to improve health and mental focus by engaging in mental exercises designed to control involuntary processes. *'Hypnosis'-A procedure that often produces a state of suggestibility, relaxation, and narrowed attention. *'Posthypnotic suggestion'-Instructions given to a person under hypnosis that are supposed to be carried out after the hypnosis session has ended. *'Franz Mesmer'-Discovered what he called animal magnetism and others often called mesmerism. The evolution of Mesmer's ideas and practices led James Braid (1795-1860) to develop hypnosis in 1842. *'Addiction'-A compulsive need to use a habit-forming substance. *'Depressants'-Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions. *'Intoxication'-A state of drunkenness characterized by impaired coordination and judgment. *'Narcotics'-Drugs that dull the senses, relieve pain, and induce sleep. *'Stimulants'-Drugs that increase neural activity and speed up body functions. *'Amphetamines'-Type of stimulant often used to stay awake or to reduce appetite. *'Hallucination'-A false sensory perception that occurs in the absence of any actual stimulus. *'Delusion'-An erroneous belief, such as persecution or grandeur, that may accompany certain psychotic disorders. *'Hallucinogen'-A psychedelic drug that distorts perceptions and evokes sensory images in the absence of actual sensory input. *'Detoxification'-The removal of a poisonous or otherwise harmful substance, such as alcohol or other drugs from the body. *'Stimulus'-A feature in the environment that is detected by an organism or that leads to a change in behavior. *'Response'-An observable reaction to a stimulus. *'Conditioning'-A type of learning that involves stimulus-response connections, in which the response is conditional on the stimulus. *'Classical conditioning'-A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit an unconditioned response when that neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a stimulus that normally causes an unconditioned response. *'Unconditioned stimulus'-In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits an unlearned, naturally occurring response. *'Unconditioned response'-In classical conditioning, an unlearned response. *'Conditioned stimulus'-A previously neutral stimulus that, because of pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, now causes a conditioned response. *'Conditioned response'-A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus. *'Taste aversion'-A type of classical conditioning in which a previously desirable or neutral food comes to be perceived as repugnant because it is associated with negative stimulation. *'Extinction'-In classical conditioning, the disappearance of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus no longer follows a conditioned stimulus. *'Reinforcement'-A stimulus or event that follows a response increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated. *'Primary reinforcer'-A stimulus, such as food or water, that is naturally rewarding and satisfying and requires no learning on the part of the subject to become pleasurable. *'Secondary reinforcer'-A stimulus such as money that becomes rewarding through its link with a primary reinforcer. *'Fixed-ratio schedule'-A pattern of reinforcement in which a specific number of correct responses is required before a behavior is reinforced. * Variable-ratio schedule -A pattern of reinforcement in which an unpredictable number of responses are performed before a behavior is reinforced. * Fixed-interval schedule -A pattern of reinforcement in which a specific amount of time must elapse before a behavior is reinforced. * 'Variable -interval schedule'-A patte rn of reinforcement in which changing amounts of time elapse before a behavior is reinforced. *'Shaping'-Technique of operant conditioning in which the desired behavior is "molded" by first rewarding any act similar to that behavior and then requiring ever-closer approximations to the desired behavior before giving the reward. *'Response chain'-The learned reactions that follow one another in sequence, each reaction producing the signal for the next. *'Social learning'-A form of learning in which the organism observes, explores, and imitates the behavior of others. *'Cognitive learning'-A form of learning involving mental processes that are not directly observed. *'Cognitive map'-A mental picture of spatial relationships or relationships between events. *'Latent learning'-Learning that is not demonstrated by an immediate, observable change in behavior. *'Learned helplessness'-A condition in which repeated attempts to control or influence a situation fail, resulting in the belief that the situation is uncontrollable and that any effort to cope will fail. *'Modeling'-The act of representing a particular role or behavior that may influence the thoughts or behaviors of another. *'Behavior modification'-The process of shaping behavior through the use of conditioning techniques. *'Token economy'-A controlled environment in which people's desired behaviors are reinforced with tokens that may be exchanged for privileges or other rewards. *'Preview'-Output of a particular document, page, film, etc. is displayed before it is produced in its final output form. *'Question'-Challenge the accuracy, probity, or propriety of. *'Read'-Interpret something that is written or printed. *'Reflect'-Manifest or bring back. *'Recite'-Repeat aloud from memory. *'Review'-Look at again; examine again. *'Memory'-The process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved. *'Episodic memory'-A memory of a specific experienced event. *'Flashbulb memories'-Clear memories of emotionally significant moments or events. *'Semantic memory'-A memory of general knowledge and information that can be recalled. *'Explicit memory'-A memory of specific information. *'Implicit memory'-A memory that consists of the skills and procedures one has learned. *'Encoding'-The translation of information into a form that can be stored in memory. *'Storage'-The maintenance of encoded information in memory over time. *'Maintenance rehearsal'-The repetition of new information in an attempt to keep from forgetting it. *'Elaborative rehearsal'-A memory device that creates a meaningful link between new information and the information already known. *'Retrieval'-The process of recalling information from memory storage. *'Context'-dependent memories-Information that is more easily retrieved in the context in which it was encoded and stored. * State-dependent memories -Memories in which information is more easily retrieved when one is in the same physiological or emotional state as when the memory was originally encoded or learned. * Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon -The belief that a piece of information is stored in our memory although we cannot retrieve it easily. * Sensory memory -The immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system. * Ic onic memory-T he sensory register that briefly holds mental images of visual stimuli. *'Eidetic imagery'-The ability to retain an accurate, vivid, and extremely detailed image of a complex scene. *'Echoic memory'-The sensory register in which traces of sounds are held and may be retrieved within several seconds. *'Short-term memory'-Memory that holds information briefly before it is stored or forgotten. *'Chunking'-A mental process for organizing information into meaningful units, or "chunks." *'Inference'-The process of forgetting information due to the presence or competition of other information. *'Long-term memory'-The type or stage of memory capable of large and relatively permanent storage. *'Schemas'-An idea or mental framework that helps one organize and interpret information. *'Recognition'-A memory process in which one identifies objects or events that have previously been encountered. *'Recall'-Retrieval of learned information. *'Relearning'-Learning material a second time, usually in less time than it was originally learned. *'Decay'-Disintegration or the fading away of memory. *'Infantile amnesia'-The inability to remember events that occurred during one's early years (before age three). *'Anterograde amnesia'-The inability to form new memories because of brain trauma. *'Retrograde amnesia'-The failure to remember events that occurred prior to physical trauma because of the effects of the trauma. *'Mnemonic devices'-A method or system for improving the memory. *'Thinking'-Mental activity that involves understanding, manipulating, and communicating information. *'Symbols'-An object or an act that stands for something else. *'Concept'-A mental structure used to categorize objects, people, or events that share similar characteristics. *'Prototype'-A prototype is an original model on which others in the same category are patterned. *'Image'-(Jungian psychology) a personal facade one presents to the world; "a public image is as fragile as Humpty Dumpty" *'Humanistic psychology'-Field of psychology that emphasizes personal potential for self-growth and how subjective perceptions influence human behavior. *'Self-actualization'-According to Maslow, the self-motivated striving to reach one's petential. *'Self-concept'-How we see or describe ourselves; our total perceptions of ourselves. *'Congruence'-Agreement; in psychology, consistency between one's self-concept and one's experience. *'Unconditional positive regard'-A consistent expression of esteem for the basic value of a person. *'Trait'-An aspect of personality with a tendency to react to a situation in a way that remains stable over time. *'Cardinal trait'-A characteristic or feature that is so pervasive the person is almost identified with it. *'Factor analysis'-A complicated statistical technique used to identify the underlying reasons variables were correlated. *'Surface trait'-A stable characteristic that can be observed in certain situations. *'Source trait'-A stable characteristic that can be considered to be at the core of personality. *'Extrovert'-An outgoing, active person who directs his or her energies and interests toward other people and things. *'Introvert'-A reserved, withdrawn person who is more pre-occupied with his or her inner thoughts and feelings than in what is going on around him or her. *'Individualism'-A belief in the importance of the individual and the virtue of self-reliance and personal independence. *'Collectivism'-A belief in the importance of the group and the virtue of group participation and association; identifying oneself by group rather than individual identity. *'Acculturation'-Process of cultural change in which one group or members of a group adopt the beliefs and behaviors of another group. *'Bicultural'-Successfully integrating customs and values from two sets of cultures. *'Assimilation'-The social process by which people of different backgrounds integrate into a new culture, and view themselves as being a part of that larger national culture. *'Reliability'-The extent to which a test yields consistent results. *'Validity'-The extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure. *'Percentile system'-A system for ranking test scores that indicates the ratio of scores lower and higher than a given score. *'Norms'-Shared standards of behavior accepted by and expected from group members. *'Standardized test'-Tests that are administered and scored the same way every time. * Achievement tests -Test that measures the amount of knowledge one has in specific academic areas. * Aptitude tests -A test that is designed to predict a person's future performance or capacity to learn. * Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) -Standardized tests frequently used by colleges and universities in the United States to aid in the selection of incoming freshmen. * Vocational interest inventories -Tests that are used to help people make decisions about career options. * Forced-choice format -A method of presenting test questions that requires a respondent to select one of several possible answers. * Personality test -Test used to assess various aspects of the personality that assists in making clinical diagnoses, counseling, research, and personnel selection. * Objective tests -A type of psychological test measures personal characteristics in a standardized format and scored independently of an examiner's beliefs or biases. * V alidity scale's -A group of test items that suggest whether or not the test taker is answering honestly. *'Projective tests-A psychological test that presents ambiguous stimuli designed to elicit a response that reflects the test taker's feelings, interests, and biases. *'Open-ended format'-Tests which have no clearly specified answers. *'Test anxiety'-Ranges from increased tension to actual physical symptoms, such as rapid breathing, pounding heartbeat, light-headedness or dizziness, nausea, and diarrhea. *'Cognitive restructuring'-A method of coping in which one changes the thoughts one has in a particular situation. *'Gender'-Classifications of sex, based on mostly nonbiological traits such as physical structure and appearance. *'Gender roles'-The differing sets of behaviors that a culture considers appropriate for males or females. *'Gender stereotypes'-Oversimplified generalizations about the characteristics of males and females. *'Primary sex characteristics'-The organs that make sexual reproduction possible, such as the ovaries and testes. *'Secondary sex characteristics'-Sexual characteristics that are not involved in reproduction, such as the growth of facial hair in males and the rounding of hips and breasts in females. *'Nurturance'-Loving care and attention. *'Gender typing'-The process by which people learn to conform to gender roles. *'Lateralization'-The development, prior to birth, of the tendencies of the brain's left and right hemispheres to specialize in certain functions. *'Modeling'-IDK *'Gender schema'-The set of traits and behaviors by which a child learns to classify male and female gender roles and by which the child models and measures his or her own relation to those roles. *'Margaret Mead'-A United States anthropologist noted for her claims about adolescence and gender role behavior in Polynesian cultures (1901-1978). *'Stress'-The physical and mental strain a person experiences in association with demands to adapt to a challenging situation. *'Eustress'-Stress that is positive or motivating. *'Distress'-Stress that is damaging or negative. *'Stressor'-An event or circumstance that produces stress. *'Approach'-approach conflict-A type of conflict involving a choice between two positive but mutually exclusive options. *'Avoidance'-avoidance conflict-A type of conflict involving a choice between two negative or undesirable options. *'Approach-avoidance conflict'-A type of conflict involving a single goal that has both positive and negative aspects. *'Multiple approach'-avoidance conflict-A conflict involving a choice between two or more options, each of which has both positive and negative aspects. *'Self-efficacy expectations'-A person's beliefs that he or she can bring about desired changes or goals through his or her own efforts. *'Psychological' hardiness-Personality characteristics that helps people withstand stress. * ''''S ocial support'- Support systems that provide assistance and encouragement to individuals with physical or emotional disabilities in order that they may better cope. *'''General adaptation syndrome-The three-stage physiological response to stress, consisting of an alarm reaction, a resistance stage, and an exhaustion stage. *'Alarm stage'-This reaction mobilizes the body for defensive actio *'Resistance stage'-During this stage, people attempt to find a way to cope with the stressor to avoid being overwhelmed by their negative reactions to the stressor. *'Exhaustion stage'-At this stage, the adrenal and other glands activated by the fight-or flight reaction can no longer continue to secrete hormones. *'Immune system'-A system (including the thymus and bone marrow and lymphoid tissues) that protects the body from foreign substances and pathogenic organisms by producing the immune response. *'Migraine headache'-A headache characterized by sudden onset and severe throbbing pain on one side of the head. *'Type A behavior'-Individuals with this type of behavior have a better chance of experiencing a heart attack than one with a Type B behavior. *'Hypertension'-A common disorder in which blood pressure remains abnormally high (a reading of 140/90 mm Hg or greater). *'Anger'-Belligerence aroused by a real or supposed wrong (personified as one of the deadly sins). *'Cancer'-Any malignant growth or tumor caused by abnormal and uncontrolled cell division; it may spread to other parts of the body through the lymphatic system or the blood stream. *'Cognitive appraisal'-The interpretation of an event that helps determine its stress impact. *'Denial'-A defense mechanism in which the individual refuses to admit that a problem exists. *'Intellectualization'-A coping mechanism in which the person analyzes a situation from an emotionally detached viewpoint. *'Progressive relaxation'-An exercise performed by lying down comfortably and tensing and releasing the tension in each major muscle group in turn. *'Meditation'-A systematic narrowing of attention that slows the metabolism and helps produce feelings of relaxation. *'Biofeedback'-A system for monitoring and feeding back information about certain biological processes, such as blood pressure. *'Autonomy'-The ability to take care of oneself and make one's own decisions independently. *'Developmental friendship'-The type of friendship in which the partners force each other to reexamine their basic assumptions and perhaps adopt new ideas and beliefs. *'Resynthesis'-The process of combining old ideas with new ones and reorganizing feelings in order to renew one's identity. *'Career'-A chosen pursuit, profession, or occupation in which a person works at least a few years. *'Comparable worth'-The concept that women and men should receive equal pay for jobs calling for comparable skill and responsibility. *'Psychological disorders'-Behavior patterns or mental processes that cause serious personal suffering or interfere with a person's ability to cope with everyday life. *'Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV)'-Classifies emotional disorders by defining characteristics and features of the disorder and provides a list of symptoms. *'Essential features'-Characteristics that define the disorder. *Associated features-Additional features that are usually present. *'Diagnostic criteria'-A list of symptoms, taken from the lists of essential and associated features, that must be present for the patient to be given a particular diagnostic label. *'Axis I'-Is used to identify current symptoms into explicitly defined categories. *'Axis II'-Is used to describe developmental disorders and long-standing personality disorders or maladaptive traits such as compulsiveness, over-dependency, or aggressiveness. *'Axis III'-Is used to describe physical disorders or general medical conditions that are potentially relevant to understanding or caring for the person. *'Axis IV'-Is a measurement of the current stress level at which the person is functioning. *'Axis V'-Is used to describe the highest level of adaptive functioning present within the past year. *'Anxiety'-A psychological state characterized by tension and apprehension, foreboding, and dread. *'Phobia'-An excessive, irrational fear out of proportion to the actual danger. *'Simple phobia'-An anxiety disorder characterized by a persistent, irrational fear of a specific object or situation. *'Social phobia'-An irrational fear of social situations in which one might be exposed to the close scrutiny of others. *'Panic attack'-An episode of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and other frightening sensations, such as chest pain, rapid heartbeat, or choking. *'Agoraphobia'-A fear of crowded, public places. *'Obsessions'-A recurring thought or image that seems to be beyond control. *'Compulsions'-An apparently irresistible urge to repeat an act or engage in ritualistic behavior, such as hand washing. *'Post-traumatic stress disorder'-A disorder that follows a distressing event outside the range of normal human experience and is characterized by intense fear, avoidance of stimuli associated with the event, and reliving of the event. *'Dissociation'-A split in consciousness. *'Dissociative disorder'-A disorder characterized by a disruption, split, or breakdown in a person's normally integrated and functioning memory, identity, or consciousness. *'Dissociative amnesia'-Characterized by a sudden loss of memory, usually following a particularly stressful or traumatic event. *'Dissociative fugue'-A disorder in which a person forgets who they are and leaves home to create a new life; during the fugue there is no memory of the former life; after recovering there is no memory for events during the dissociative state. *'Dissociative identity disorder'-A disorder in which a person exhibits two or more personality states, each with its own patterns of thinking , perceiving, behaving, and relating in the world. *'Depersonalization'-A dissociative disorder characterized by persistent or recurrent feelings that one is unreal or is detached from one's own experiences or body. *'Somatization'-The expression of psychological distress through physical symptoms. *'Somatoform disorder'-A psychological disorder in which individual physical ailments have no identifiable physical cause but are thought to be a result of psychological issues. *'Conversion disorder'-A mental disorder characterized by the conversion of mental conflict into somatic forms (into paralysis or anesthesia having no apparent cause). *'Hypochondriasis'-Chronic and abnormal anxiety about imaginary symptoms and ailments. *'Malingering'-Evading duty or work by pretending to be incapacitated. *'Depression'-A psychological state characterized by extreme sadness, an inability to concentrate, and feelings of helplessness and dejection. *'Major depressive disorder'-A type of mood disorder characterized by persistent feelings of despair, loss of interest, and low self-esteem. *'Learned helplessness'-Learning from experience to believe that previous events in their lives were out of their control and thus future events will be out of their control as well. *'Bipolar disorder'-A disorder in which a person's mood inappropriately alternates between extremes of elation and depression. *'Mania'-A mood characterized by extreme elation and hyperactivity. *'Schizophrenia'-A group of severe psychotic disorders characterized by distortions in thinking, perception, emotion, and behavior. *'Hallucination'-A false sensory perception that occurs in the absence of any actual stimulus. *'Delusion'-An erroneous belief, such as persecution or grandeur, that may accompany certain psychotic disorders. *'Catatonic stupor'-An immobile, expressionless, coma-like state associated with schizophrenia. *'Paranoid schizophrenia'-A form of schizophrenia characterized by delusions (of persecution or grandeur or jealousy); symptoms may include anger and anxiety and aloofness and doubts about gender identity; unlike other types of schizophrenia the patients are usually presentable and (if delusions are not acted on) may function in an apparently normal manner. *'Disorganized schizophrenia'-A form of schizophrenia characterized by severe disintegration of personality including erratic speech and childish mannerisms and bizarre behavior; usually becomes evident during puberty; the most common diagnostic category in mental institutions. *'Catatonic schizophrenia'-A form of schizophrenia characterized by a tendency to remain in a fixed stuporous state for long periods; the catatonia may give way to short periods of extreme excitement. *'Personality disorders'-A class of disorders characterized by major deviant and rigid patterns of thought and action that impair social functioning. *'Antisocial personality disorder'-A personality disorder characterized by a pattern of irresponsibility, shallow emotions, lack of conscience, and violating the rights of others without feeling guilt or remorse. *'Paranoid personality disorder'-A personality disorder characterized by issues with oversensitivity and jealousy accompanied by an unwarranted view of others as malevolent and mistrustful. *'Schizoid personality disorder'-A personality disorder manifested by a profound defect in the ability to form social relationships, no desire for social involvement, and an indifference to praise or criticism. *'Avoidant personality disorder'-A personality disorder characterized by pervasive patterns of social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, and extreme sensitivity to negative evaluation. *'Psychotherapy'-A general term for the application of psychological principles and techniques for any treatment used by therapists to help troubled individuals overcome their problems and disorders. *'Eclectic pproach'-The approach to therapy in which the psychotherapist combines techniques and ideas from many different schools of thought. *'Placebo effect'-A change in a participant's illness or behavior that results from a belief that the treatment will have an effect rather than from the actual treatment. *'Empathy'-The capacity for warmth and understanding. *'Group therapy'-A form of therapy in which patients work together with the aid of a leader to resolve interpersonal problems. *'Free association'-In psychoanalysis, the uncensored uttering of all thoughts that come to mind. *'Resistance'-In psychoanalysis, a blocking from consciousness of issues that might cause anxiety. *'Dream analysis'-A technique used by psychoanalysts to interpret the content of patients' dreams. *'Manifest content'-According to Freud, the apparent and remembered content of a dream. *'Latent content'-According to Freud, the hidden meaning of a dream *'Transference'-In psychoanalysis, the patient's transfer of emotions associated with other relationships to the therapist. *'Humanistic therapy'-A treatment method based on the assumption that most people are basically good and have a natural tendency to strive for self-actualization. *'Person'-centered therapy-A humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist creates an accepting, empathic environment to facilitate the client's growth. *'Nondirective therapy'-A type of therapy in which the client rather than the therapist is encouraged to take the lead. *'Active listening'-Empathic listening in which the listener acknowledges, restates, and clarifies the speaker's thoughts and concerns. *'Unconditional positive regard'-A consistent expression of esteem for the basic value of a person. *'Rational-emotive behavior therapy'-A confrontational cognitive therapy, developed by Albert Ellis, that encourages people to challenge illogical, self-defeating thoughts and attitudes. *'Aversive conditioning'-A type of counterconditioning that links an unpleasant state with an unwanted behavior in an attempt to eliminate the behavior. *'Token economy'-A controlled environment in which people's desired behaviors are reinforced with tokens that may be exchanged for privileges or other rewards. *'Successive approximations'-In operant conditioning, a series of behaviors that gradually become more similar to a desired behavior. *'Behavior modification'-The process of shaping behavior through the use of conditioning techniques. *'Arbitrary inference'-Drawing conclusions for which there is no evidence. *'Selective abstraction'-Drawing conclusions about a situation or event on the basis of a single detail and misinterpreting or ignoring other details that would lead to a different conclusion. *'Overgeneralization'-Drawing a general conclusion from a single experience. *'Antianxiety drugs'-A type of medication that relieves anxiety disorders and panic disorders by depressing the activity of the central nervous system. *'Antidepressant drugs'-A type of psychiatric medication used to treat mood disorders by manipulating various neurotransmitter activity. *'Lithium'-A chemical used to treat the mood swings of bipolar disorder. *'Antipsychotic drugs'-A type of psychiatric medication used to reduce agitation, mental confusion, delusions, and hallucinations. *'Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)'-A radical treatment for psychological disorders that involves passing an electric current through the brain of an anesthetized patient. *'Psychosurgery'-Biological treatments in which specific areas or structures of the brain are removed or destroyed to change behavior. *'Prefrontal lobotomy'-A radical form of psychosurgery in which a section of the frontal lobe of the brain is severed or destroyed. *'Social psychology'-A broad field of psychology that seeks to explain how our thoughts, feelings, perceptions, and behaviors are influenced by interactions with others. *'Social cognition'-A subfield of social psychology that focuses on cognitive processes and how we perceive, store, and retrieve information about social interactions. *'Physical proximity'-The distance of one person to another person. *'Stimulation value'-The ability of a person or participant to interest or expose another to new ideas and experiences. *'Utility value'-The ability of a person or participant to help another achieve his or her goals. *'Ego-support value'-The ego-support value is the ability of a person to provide another person with sympathy, encouragement, and approval. *'Complementarity'-The attraction that often develops between opposite types of people because of the ability of one to supply what the other lacks. * S ocial perception- The ways in which people form and modify their impressions of others. *'Primacy effect'-The tendency to form opinions of others based on first impressions. *'Recency effect'-The tendency for people to change their opinions of others based on recent interactions. *'Attribution theory'-The suggestion that there is a tendency to explain a person's behavior in terms of the situation or the person's personality. *'Actor-observer bias'-The tendency to attribute one's own behavior to situational factors but to attribute the behavior of others to dispositional factors. *'Fundamental attribution error'-A bias in social perception characterized by the tendency to assume that others generally act on the basis of their dispositions, even when there is evidence suggesting the importance of their situations. *'Self-serving bias'-The tendency to view one's successes as stemming from internal factors and one's failures to stemming from external factors. *'Generational identity'-The theory that people of different ages tend to think differently about certain issues because of different formative experiences. * Triangular theory of love -Sternberg's theory contends that love is made up of three parts: intimacy, passion, and commitment. * Intimacy -The component of love associated with feeling close and connected to someone. * Passion -A powerful and intense feeling or emotion. * Commitment -An intent to maintain a specific course of action. * Group -A collection of people who have shared goals, a degree of interdependence, and some amount of communication. * T ask functions- Shared activities of a group that are directed toward the completion of a task or job. *'Social functions'-Responses directed toward satisfying the emotional needs of members. *'Norms'-An established standard of performance or behavior. *'Ideology'-The set of principles, attitudes, and defined objectives for which a group stands. *'Social facilitation'-The tendency for individuals to improve performance when people observed by others. * Social inhibition -A decrease in performance in the presence of a crowd. * Group polarization -The theory that group discussion reinforces the majority's point of view and shifts group members' opinions to a more extreme position. * Groupthink -Poor group decision making that occurs as a result of a group emphasizing unity over critical thinking. * Sociogram -A diagram that represents relationships within a group, especially likes and dislikes of members for other members. * Conformity -Acting in accord with group norms or customs. * O bedience- A change in attitude or behavior brought about by social pressure to comply with people perceived to be authorities. *'Solomon Asch'-Designed what has become a classic experiment to test conformity to pressure from one's peers. *'Stanley Milgram'-Conducted the most famous investigation of obedience in 1963. *'Philip Zimbardo'-Conducted an experiment that caused ordinary people to act in extraordinary ways. *'Aggression'-The initiation of hostile or destructive behavior intended to do physical or psychological harm to others. *'Catharsis'-A psychological process through which anger or aggressive energy is released by expressing or letting out powerful negative emotions. *'Altruism'-Unselfishly helping others, often at a cost or risk, for reasons other than rewards. *'Diffusion of responsibility'-When the presence of others lessens an individual's feelings of responsibility for his or her actions or failure to act. *'Bystander effect'-The tendency of a person to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present. *'Social loafing'-The tendency of people to work less hard when sharing the workload with others than when they are working alone. *'Diendividuation'-Individuals behave irrationally when there is less chance of being personally identified. *Attitude-A complex mental state consisting of positive or negative evaluations, beliefs, and feelings. *Self-concept-Ones' view of oneself as an individual. *Cognitive evaluation-Evaluating evidence and forming beliefs on the basis of these evaluations. *'Compliance'-A change of behavior to avoid discomfort or rejection and to gain approval. *'Identification'-The process of seeing oneself as similar to another person or group and accepting the attitudes of another person or group as one's own. *'Cognitive dissonance'-A state of unpleasant psychological tension that arises when a person experiences contradictory or conflicting thoughts, attitudes, beliefs, or feelings. *'Counterattitudinal behavior'-Behavior that contradicts one's private attitude often used as a tool of persuasion. *'Self-justification'-The need to rationalize one's attitude and behavior. *'Self-fulfilling prophecy'-A belief, prediction, or expectation that operates to bring about its own fulfillment. *'Prejudice'-Preconceived, unjustifiable, and usually negative attitude toward a person or group. *'Discrimination'-Unfair treatment of a person or group based on prejudice. *'Persuasion'-The direct attempt to influence attitudes. *'Boomerang effect'-A change in attitude or behavior opposite to the one desired by the persuader. *'Sleeper effect'-The delayed impact on attitude change of a persuasive communication. *'Inoculation effect'-A method of developing resistance to persuasion by exposing a person to arguments that challenge his or her beliefs so that he or she can practice defending them. *'Brainwashing'-The most extreme form of attitude change, accomplished through peer pressure, physical suffering, threats, rewards for compliance, manipulation of guilt, intensive indoctrination, and other psychological means. 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